Module 7: Equity Investments
Equity Investments in CFA Level 2 focuses on advanced valuation techniques and company analysis.
Unlike Level 1, which introduces basic valuation concepts, Level 2 requires candidates to:
- analyze industries and companies in depth
- apply multiple valuation models
- interpret valuation results
- compare intrinsic value with market price
This module is critical because it forms the foundation of equity research and portfolio management.
Before valuing a company, analysts must understand the industry environment and competitive position of the firm.
Competitive Positioning
Competitive positioning refers to how a company performs relative to its competitors.
Analysts evaluate:
Market Share
A company with higher market share often has stronger pricing power.
Cost Structure
Companies with lower costs may have higher profitability.
Brand Strength
Strong brands can command higher prices and customer loyalty.
Barriers to Entry
Industries with high barriers protect existing firms from new competitors.
Understanding competitive positioning helps determine whether a company can sustain long term growth and profitability.
Industry Life Cycle
Industries typically go through different stages over time.
Introduction Stage
- New products are introduced
- High growth potential
- High uncertainty and risk
Growth Stage
- Rapid increase in demand
- Increasing competition
- Rising profits
Maturity Stage
- Growth slows down
- Market becomes saturated
- Stable cash flows
Decline Stage
- Decreasing demand
- Falling revenues
- Industry consolidation
Understanding the industry life cycle helps investors assess growth potential and risk.
Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) models estimate the value of a company based on the present value of its future cash flows.
These models are widely used in equity valuation.
Free Cash Flow to Firm (FCFF)
FCFF represents the cash flow available to all providers of capital, including both debt and equity holders.
FCFF Formula
FCFF = Net Income + Non Cash Charges + Interest × (1 − Tax Rate) − Capital Expenditure − Change in Working Capital
FCFF is discounted using the weighted average cost of capital.
Firm Value = Present value of FCFF
Free Cash Flow to Equity (FCFE)
FCFE represents the cash flow available only to equity shareholders.
FCFE Formula
FCFE = Net Income + Non Cash Charges − Capital Expenditure − Change in Working Capital + Net Borrowing
FCFE is discounted using the cost of equity.
Equity Value = Present value of FCFE
Key Differences Between FCFF and FCFE
FCFF includes both debt and equity holders, while FCFE focuses only on equity investors.
FCFF is used when capital structure is changing, while FCFE is used when capital structure is stable.
Market based valuation uses price multiples to estimate the value of a company relative to comparable firms.
Price to Earnings Ratio (P E)
Price to Earnings Ratio compares a company’s stock price to its earnings.
P E Formula
P E Ratio = Price per Share / Earnings per Share
A higher P E ratio may indicate:
- strong growth expectations
- overvaluation
A lower P E ratio may indicate:
- undervaluation
- weak growth prospects
Price to Book Ratio (P B)
Price to Book Ratio compares the market value of equity to its book value.
P B Formula
P B Ratio = Market Price per Share / Book Value per Share
This ratio is often used for companies with significant tangible assets such as banks.
Advantages of Market Based Valuation
- easy to calculate
- widely used in practice
- useful for comparing similar companies
Limitations
- depends on market conditions
- may not reflect intrinsic value
- affected by accounting differences
Residual income models estimate value based on the income generated above the required return.
Residual income represents the profit earned after accounting for the cost of equity.
Residual Income Concept
Residual Income Formula
Residual Income = Net Income − (Cost of Equity × Book Value of Equity)
If a company generates returns above its cost of equity, it creates value for shareholders.
Equity Valuation Using Residual Income
Equity Value = Book Value of Equity + Present Value of Future Residual Income
This model is useful when:
- companies do not pay dividends
- cash flows are difficult to estimate
Advantages of Residual Income Model
- focuses on value creation
- useful for firms with irregular cash flows
- less sensitive to terminal value assumptions
This module is one of the most important in CFA Level 2 because it helps candidates:
- perform company valuation
- analyze industries and competition
- apply multiple valuation techniques
- make investment recommendations
In the exam, questions are often case based and require candidates to choose the most appropriate valuation method and interpret results correctly.